Искусства и ремесла Средневековья

INTRODUCTION

ТнЕ very general and keen interest in the revival of arts and cгafts in America is а sign fuH of promise and pleasшc to those \vho are working among thc so-called minoг arts. One reacls at every turn how greatly Ruskin and Moпis have influenced handicraft: how шuch these шеn and their co-woгkers haye modified the appearance of our streets and lюuses, our materials, textiles, нtensils, and all other usefнl thiвgs in \vhich it is possiЫe to shock or to please the msthetic taste, witlюut othe1·\vise affccting the value of these articles for their destined purposes. In this connection it is interesting to look into tl1e past, particularly to those ceвtшies known as the :Мiddle Ages, in which the handic1·afts flourished in special perfection, and to see for ourselves ho� these crafts were pшsued, and exactly what these arts really were. Many people talk learnedly of the delightfu] 1·evival of the arts and crafts without having а very definite idea of the original processes which are being restored to popнlar favour. William Morris himself, although а great шodern spirit, and reformer, felt the

V

I11t1·oduction

Vl

necessity of а basis of liistoгic kпowledge in all workers. " I do not tЬiвk," lie says, " that any man but one of the l1igl1est genius coulcl do anything in these days withoнt much stнdy of ancient art, and even he would Ье much hiшlered if Ье lacked it." It is but turning to the original soшces; then, to examine the prog1·ess of шediюval artistic crafts, and tlюse soшccs are usually to Ье foнnd p1·eserved for ош cdification in enormous volumes of plates, inacccssiЫe to rnost readers, авd seldom ,\rith the kind of iвformation ,vhich the average peI"son woнld enjoy. Thcrc are very few books dealiпg ,vith thc arts and cгafts of the olden time, wllich аге adapted to infoгш tlюse " r ho Ьаvс во intcntion of practising sucl1 aгts, апd yet ,vho ,vish to understand and appreciatc the cxaшples which thcy sce in nшnerous muscums ог exhiЫtions, апd in travelling abroad. There are шаnу of the arts and crafts which соте undeг the daily observation of thc tourist, " r hich шаkе no impression upon him and have no message for him, siшply because l1e has neYer considei·ed tl1e subject of their origin and construction. After one has once studied the subject of historic caгving, шetal work, embгoidery, tapestry, or illuminatioп, one can never fail to look upon these things ,vith intelligent interest and vastly increased pleasure. Until the middle of the nineteenth century art had becn гcgarded as а Iuxury fог the rich dilett�nte, - the people hcard little of it, and thought less. The utensils апd fuгniture of tlie milidle class were fashioned

Int1·oduction

Vll

only with а vie\v to utility; there \vas а populaг bclief that beaнtiful things \Vere expensive, and thc thrifty housekeeper who had no money to рнt into bric-a-Ьrac ncver thought of such things as an artistic lашр shade 01· а well-coloнred soia cнshion. Decorativc агt is well defined Ьу Mr. Rнssell Sturgis: " Fine art applied to the making heautifнl 01· interestiпg that which is made for utilitarian purposes." Many peoplc have ап impression that the more omate ап article is, the тоге ,vork has been laYished нроп it. There neveг ,vas а mOl'e cгroneous idea. ТЬс diligent polish in order to secure nice plain surfaccs, or tЬе neat fitting of parts together, is infinitely шоге difficult than addiпg а florid castiпg to conceal clumsy work­ manship. Of course certaiв forms of claboration involve great pains and labour ; '" Ьнt thc mere fact tliat а piece of ,vork is decorated does поt sho\v that it has cost any more in time and execнtion tlian if it wcre plain, - fгequently тапу hoшs haYe been saved Ьу tЬе device of coveгing нр defects witl1 cheap ornament. How often one finds that а simple chair witl1 а plaiп back costs шоrе tliaп опе whicl1 is apparently elabo- 1·ately cal'ved ! ТЬе reason is, that the plaiп one had to Ье made онt of а dccent pirce of wood, wl1ilc tЬе oгnate one was turned out of а роог piece, and tl1eп stamped with а pattem in Ol'der to attract thc attentioп froш the infcrior material of ,vhicЬ it ,vas composed. Tl1e softer апd рооге1· the wood, the deeper it was possiЫe to stamp it at а single Ыоw. The same principle applies to

Int1·oduction

Vlll

шuch work in metal. Fliшsy Ьits of silVeI'ware stamped ,vith cheap desigпs of flo,vers ш frнits ai·e attached to surfaces badly fiпished, while thc ,voгk iпvolved in шak­ ing such а piecc of plate ,vith а plaiп surface would increase its cost three or foнr times. А craft may easily Ье practised ,vithoпt art, and still serve its purpose; tl1e alliance of the two is а means of giviпg pleasure as well as se1·ving utility. Внt it is а mistake to suppose tlшt because а design is artistic, its technical rendeгing is any tl1e less important. Fre­ quently curious aгticles are palшed off оп us, and designated as "Arts and Crafts" ornaments, in ,vhicl1 neithe1· art nor craft plays its fнll sЬare. A1·t does воt coпsist only in original, unusual, or нnfaшiliar designs; craft does not шеаn hammeгing silver so that the hашшеr marks sЬall sЬo,v; the best art is that ,vhicl1 p1·oduces designs of grace апd appropriateness, ,vЬetЬer they are stгikingly new or not, and tЬе best craftsшan is so skilful that he is аЫе to go beyond the haшme1· ma1·ks, so to speak, and to produce ,vith the lшшше1· а sнrface as smootl1 as, апd far шоrе perfect than, that produced Ьу an emery and Ьurnishe1·. Some people think that '' Arts and Crafts" means а coшblnatioп which allows of poor \York being concealed нnder а mask of resthetic effect. Labouг shoнld not go foгth blindly without агt, and art s11011ld not proceed simply for the attaiпment of beauty ,vitlюut utility, iп otl1er ,vords, there should Ье an alliance between labour апd art. One principle fог whicЬ craftsmen should stand is

Int1·odнction

IX

а respect for their own tools: а fгank recognition of the methods and implements eшployed in constructing any article. If the article iп question is а chair, and is really put together Ьу means of sockets and pegs, let these constructive necessities appear, and do not try to disguise the means Ьу which the result is to Ье attained. Make the requisite feature а beauty instead of а disgrace. It is amusing to see а Ne\v England farшer build а fence. Не begins ,vith good cedar posts, - fine, thick, solid logs, which аге at least genuine, and handsome so far as а cedar post is сараЫе of beiпg handsome. Уou think, " Ah, tlшt will Ье а good unobjectioпaЫe fence." But, belюld, as soon as the posts are in position, he carefully lays а flat plank vertically in front of each, so that the passer-by may fancy that he has performed the feat of making а fence of flat laths, thus going out of his way to conceal the one positive and good-looking feature in Ыs fence. Не seeшs to have some furtive dread of admitting that he has нsed the real article! А bolt is to Ье affixed to а modern door. Instead of being applied with а plate of iron or brass, in itself а decorative feature оп а Ыank space like that of the sшface of а dоог, the carpenter cuts а piece of wood out of tЬе edge of the door, sinks tЬе bolt out of sight, so tЬat nothing shail appear to view but а tiny шeaningless brass handle, and considers that he has perfoгmed а very neat job. Сошраrе this rnethod with that of а rnediшval locksrnith, апd the гesнlt with his great iron

Iпtroduction

х

bolt, and if you сап not appгeciate tЬе differeпce, both in priпciple апd result, I should recoшшend а course of historic art study until you аге convinced. On the otheг liand, it is поt necessary to carry your artistry so far that уон Ьuild а fence of пothing but cedar Iogs touclliпg one aпother, ш that уон cover уош евtiге doo1· ,vith а шeandei· of ,vrought iron which culшiвates in а sшall bolt. Enthusiastic follo,vers of the Aгts and Crafts шoveшent often go to шшЫd ехtгешеs. Recoynition of шate1·ial and шethod does not сошюtе а display of шethod and шaterial out of proportion to the deшaпds of the article to Ье constructecl. As iв otl1eг forшs of cнlture, Ьаlапсе and sanity аге necessary, in order to pгoduce а satisfactory resнlt. But ,vhen а craftsman is possessed of an resthctic instinct and facнlty, he шe1·its the congratulations offered to the studeпts of Bil'lningham Ьу \Villiam Morris, ,vhcn he t.old tl1em that tЬеу ,vere aшong the happiest people in all civШzatioп - u peгsons whose necessary daily work is insepaгaЫe from their greatest pleasшe." · А medireval a1·tist ,vas usпally а craftsшaп as well. Не ,vas not conteвt ,Yith fшnishing desigпs alone, and tЬсп liaвding tl1eш оУег to шеn ,vhose l1ands were t1·ained to their execut.ion, but he took l1is o,vn designs and carгicd tЬеш out. Thнs, tЬе desigпer adapted his dгa,ving to the deшands of Ьis material апd the crafts­ man ,vas necessaгily in syшpathy ,vitl1 the design since it was his own. The result ,vas а liaгmony of intention and execution which is often lacking when t,vo men of

Iнt1·odнction

Xl

differiпg tastes prodнce onc objcct. Lubke sшns нр the talents of а шcdimval a1·tist as follo1vvs: ' 1 А paiпtcr coнld proctuce ране1s witl1 coats of arms fOI" tl1c шilitaгy mcn of nоЫе Ьirth, and devotiona} paпels v\'itЬ ан image of а saint or а conventionalizcd scene f1·ош Scripture for that noЬle's ,vifе. "\Vith the sаше brusl1 анd on а larger panel he coнld pl'oduce а larger sacrc(1 pictнre for the convent roнnd tЬе corner, анd 1vvitl1 fineг pencil and шоrе delicate toнch 11е coнld paint tЬе ve1lum leaves of а шissal;" апd so on. If ап artistic earthenware platter ,vas to Ье шаdе, tЬе painter tuгнell to his potter's ,vheel and to llis kiln. If а filigгee coгonet ,vas wanted, Ье took up his tools for шetal and je,velry work. Redgrave lays down an excellent maxiш fог gcneгal gнidaпce to designers in arts othe1· thaп lcgitiшate rictuгe шaking. Не says: " The рiсtнге 11шst Ье iпdepeшlcпt, of the mateI"ial, the thought аlопе sЬould goverп it; whe1·eas in decoration tl1e шaterial шust Ье one of tl1e sнggestшs of the thoнght, its use must goYerв tl1e design." This sho,vs the diffeгence bet\veen decшatioп and pictorial al't. One hea1·s а gгeat deal of the " conventional " in шоdеш art talk. Just what tl1is шeans, fe,v pcople who have the word in thcir vocabu}aries гeally kno,v. As Professor Moore defincd it once, it does not apply to an arЬitrary theoretical system at all, but is instinctive. It шеапs oЬedience to the liшits under ,vhich the artist works. The really gI"eatcst art сгаf tsmen of all

Introdпction

Xll

have been those who l1ave recognized the limitations of the material which they employed. Some of tl1e cleverest have been beguiled Ьу the fascination of over­ coming obstacles, into trying to шаkс iron do the things appropriate only to \Yood, ог to force cast b1·onze into the similitude of а picture, ог to discount all the creclit due to а fiпe piece of ешЬгоidе1-у Ьу trying to make it арреаг like а paiпting. But these are tl1e exotics; they аге the craft sшen who l1ave been led astгay Ьу а fa]se impulse, ,vlю respect difficulty шоrс than appгop1·iateness, ,vаг гathe1· thaп реасе ! No elaborate and tortпred piece of Cellini's work сап сошраrе with the digнified gloгy of the Pala d'Ого; Ghiberti's gates in Florence, though а ша1теllонs tour de force, are not so satisfying as the gгeat согопа can­ delabrum of Hildesheiш. As а гнlс, ,ve sl1all fincl tЬat medi::eval сгаftsшen \Yere betteг aгtists thaп those of the Renaissaпce, for ,vitl1 facility in tl1e use of mateгial, comes al,vays the temptation to шаkс it imitate sоше other material, thus losing its iвdividuality Ьу а con­ tortion which may Ье cuгioпs апd inteгesting, Ьпt out of place. "\Ve all enjoy seeing acrobats оп tl1e stage, but it would Ье painfнl to see tI1eш curling iп апd out of our dra,ving-rooш chairs. The trпe spiгit ,Yhich the Aгts and Crafts is trying to inculcate ,vas found in Floreпce ,vhen the great artists tнrned their attention to the шanipнlation of objects of daily use, Benvenнto Cellini being williпg to make salt-cellaгs, and Sansovino to woгk оп inkstands, and

Int1·oduction

Xlll

Donatello on picture frames, while Pollajuolo made candlesticks. The mоге our leading artists 1·ealize the need of thcir attcntion in the minoг aгts, the more nearly shall ,ve attain to а genuine аШаnсе between the aгts and tl1e cгafts. То sum up tl1c effect of this harmony bet,veen art and craft in the Middle Ages, the АЬЬе Texier has said: " In those days art апd шanнfactures ,ve1·e Ыended and identified; a1·t gained Ьу tbls affinity great pшctical facility, and manufactшe mucl1 oгiginal beauty." And tl1en the value to the artist is alшost incalculaЫe. То spend one's life in getting шeans on which to live is а waste of all enjoyment. То usc one's lifе as one goes along - to live every day with pleasure in congenial occupation - that is the only thing ,vorth while. ThP­ lifе of а craftsman is а coпstant daily fulfilшent of the final ideal of the шаn who spends all his time and st1·engtl1 iп acquiring wealth so that sоше time (and he шау never live to see the day) he may Ье аЫе to control his time and to use it as pleases him. There is stored нр capital rep1·esented in the life of а man whose work is а recreation, and expl'essive of his own personality. In а book of this size it is not possiЫe to treat of every art or craft ,vllich engaged the skill of the mediroval ,vшkers. But at some futшe time I hope to make а separate study of the ceramics, glass in its various forms, tЬе arts of engraving and printing, and some of the many otheгs which have added so much to the pleasшe and beauty of the civilized world.

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

V

GOLD ЛND S1LVER

./ 1 .

JEWELRY AND PRECIOUS 81'0Nl!]S .

49

11.

III. ENAMEL

91

IV. ОтнЕR METALS

109

V. TAPESTRY

154

179

VI. EMBROIDERIES

ScuLPTURE IN SтoNE (FнлNСЕ AND IтлLУ) ScuLPTURE IN SтoNE (ENGLAND AND GБR.МANY)

VII.

213

VIII.

242

262

�IX. Cлnv1NG IN WooD AND IvoRY

INLAУ AND Моsл1с

х.

296

_, XI.

ILLU.IШNATION OF Воокs

326

BIВLIOGRAPHY

;355

369

INDE)(.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

РАОЕ

Frontispiece 1.5

ExAl\IPLES oF EccLESIAsт1cAL METAL \Vонк CROWN 0F CHARLEJ\IAGNE BERNWARD 1 S CROSS AND CANDLESTICKS, BERN"'ARD's CнALICE, HILDESHEil\l CoR0NA АТ HILDESHEIM. (Detail) RELIQUARY АТ ORVIETO

HILDESHEI!\I /acing /ac-ing /acing /aC'ing

lG 18 20 32 40

APOSTLE SPOONS lYORY KNIFE HANDLES, w1тн PoRTRAITS 0F QuEEN Еыzл- ВЕТН AND JAMES 1. ENGLIS. 42 ТнЕ " MILKMAID CuP " 4G SAXON Вноосн 50 ТнЕ ТARA Вноосн 51 SнRINE 0F тнЕ BELL 0F Sт. PATRICK ТнЕ TнEASURE 0F GuЕннлzzлн . HEBREW RING facing 52 64 76

CRYSTAL FиooNs, Sт. l\IARK's, VENICE SARDONYX CuP, llтн CБNTURY, VENICE GERl\IAN ENAl\IEL, 13тн CENTURY ENлl\JELLED GoLD Воок CovER, S1ENA DEтлrL; SнRINE 0F тнЕ ТннЕЕ K1Nc:s, CoLOGNE F1NIGUERRл's РАх, I<'LORENCE IтлLIAN ENAMELLED CнozrER, 14тн CENTURY Wноuант lнoN HrNGE, FнлNкFонт . B1scoRNETTE's Dooнs АТ Рлюs \VROUGHT IRON FR0l\l ТНЕ ПARGELLO, FLORENCE l\Iooюsн KEYS, SEVILLE Aнl\IOUR. SнowING l\IлrL DEVELOPING INT0 PLATE DAMASCENED HELJ\IET l\fooюsн SwoRD ENлMELLED Sшт oF Аю,юuн BнuNELLEscш's CoмPETITIVE PANEL xvii

facing /acing

84

86 93 94

/acing /acing /aC'ing

98

100 104 112 11-1 1 Hi 119 12;3 126 128 130 137

facing /acing

/acing

List of Illustrations

хvш

PAGE

GнIВERт1's СомРЕт1т1vЕ PANEL. l<,oNт АТ HILDESHEIM, 12тн CENTURY PoRTRAIT SтATUETTE 0F PETER V1scнER А CoPPER "CuRFE\Y " • SANCTUARY KNOCKER, DURHAM CATHEDRAL ANGL0 SAXON Cнuc1F1x oF LEAD DEтAIL, BAYEUX TAPESTRY FLEм1sн TAPESTRY, '' Тн� PнoDIGAL SoN " TAPESTRY, REPRESENTING PARIS IN тнЕ 15тн facing facing CENTURY facing EмвROIDERY ON CANVAS, 16тн CENTURY, Sоuтн KENSINGTON MUSEUM, facing DETAIL 0F ТНЕ SYON СоРЕ . facing DALMATIC 0F CHARLEMAGNE facing E).IВROIDERY, 15тн CENTURY, CuLOGNE facing facing facing facing CARVED CAPITAL FR0M RAVENNA PuLPIT oF NicoLA P1SANO, P1sA То:мв 0F тнЕ SoN 0F Sт. Lou1s, Sт. DENIS CARVINGS AR0UND Снош Al\IВULATORY, C'HARTRES GнoтESQUE Fном OxFORD, PoPUI,ARLY KNO\YN AS BACKBITER " ТнЕ "BEVERLY M1NSTRELS " Sт. LoRENZ Снuнсн, NuREMBERG, SнowING ADAM КнлFТ's РУх, AND твЕ HANGING MEDALLION ВУ VEiт Sтoss facing RELIEF ВУ ADA:\1 KRAFТ M1SERERE SтALL, ELY; NоАн AND тнЕ Dm·E M1sERERE SтALL; ТнЕ FАтЕ oF тнЕ ALE - "\\'IFE IVORY TABERNACLE, RAVENNA ТнЕ NАт1v1тУ; IvonY CARVING . PлsтoRAL SтAFF; IVORY, GERMAN, 12тн CENTURY IvoRY Мшнон CAsE; EARLY 14тн CENTURY Ivoнy Мшнон CAsE, 1340 . CHESSMAN FR0M LEWIS МлnвLЕ INLAY FR0M LuccA facing facing faci'ng DETAIL 0F PлvEMENT, SIENA; "FoRTUNE," ВУ P1NTURIC- cнro . / acing facing fncing facing "ТнЕ CARVED Вох - ,vooD РУх, 14тн CENTURY MISERERE STALL; AN ARTISAN АТ ,vонк DETAIL 0F PAVEMENT, BAPTISTERY, FLORENCE

1:з8

140 142 148 148 151 1 1>G lGG

17G

190 202 204 208 217 22fi 232 238

256 257

260 261 263 271 272 273 278 280 286 289 290 293 297 298

300

List of IIIпstrations

XlX

РАОЕ

Амво АТ RAVELLo; SPECII\IEN OF Cosl\IATI MosAIC 310 l\IosAIC FROM RAVENNA; THEODORA AND НЕн SurтE, 16тн CENTURY . facing 314 MoSAIC IN BAS - RELIEF, NAPLES facing :324 А ScRIВE лт Wонк; 12тн CENTURY MANUSCRIPT 334 DETAIL FROM ТНЕ DURHAJ\I Воок facing 344 IvY РлттЕRN, FROM л 14тн CENTURY FRENCH MлNUSCRIPT facing 346 MEDIJEVAL ILLUl\llNATION CлRICATURE OF А В1sноР ILLUl\ПNATION ВУ GнЕнлнт Dлvш OF BнuaEs, 1498; Sт. 348 352 facing

358 360 362

f acing facing facing

BARBARA .

CнoRAL Воок, SIENA

DETAIL FROM AN ITALIAN CHORAL Воок

·ARTS AND CRAFTS IN

ТНЕ MIDDLE AGES

СНАРТЕR I

GOLD AND SILVER

ТнЕ worker in metals is usually called а smith, whetl1er he Ье coppeгsшith or goldsшitl1. The terш is Saxon in origin, and is deriveti from the expression "he that smiteth." :Мetal \vas usнally ,vrought Ьу force of ЬlO\vs, except ,vl1ere the process of castiпg modified this. Beaten work was solderecl from the earliest tiшes. Egyptiaпs evidently нndeгstood tЬс use of solder, for the Hebre\vs oЬtaineu their kno,vledge of such things from them, and iп Isaiah xli. 7, оссшs the passage: "So the carpenter encouгaged the goldsшith, and he t.hat sшootheth with the lшmmer hiш that sшote the anvil, saying, ' It is ready for the soldering.' " In the ВiЫе there are constant гeferences to sucl1 arts in шetal work as prevail in our ovvn times: "Of beaten work шаdе he tl1e candlesticks," Exodus. In the omaments of the tabernacle, the artificer Bezaleel и made two cheruЬims of gold beaten out of one piece made he theш." An account of gold being gathered in spite of vicis- 1

2 A1is and Сгаfts iн the l\Iiddle Ages

situdes is giveп Ьу Pliпy: " Aшong tl1c Dardoe the ants arc as laгge as Egyptian ,volves, апd cat coloш-ed. The Indiaпs gatl1er tЬс golcl uust tl1г0\vn нр Ьу tl1e ants, ,vl1cn thcy аге slecping in thcir holes in the Sum­ mer; but if thesc aniшals ,vake, tЬеу pursuc the Indiaпs, and, though moнnted оп the swiftest caшels, overtakc and tear theш to pieces." Another legend relates to thc Ыesscd St. Patrick, tl1rough whose intercession special grace is supposed to have been granted to all sшiths. St. Patrick ,vas а slave iп his yoнth. Ап old legend tells that "onc tiшc а wild boar eamc rootiпg in the field, and brought нр а lшnp of gokl; апd Patгick bгought it to а tinker, ашl the tiпkcr said, " It is пothing but solder. Givc it here to ше." But then he brought it to а smith, and the smith told him it ,vas gold; and ,vith that gold he bought his freedom. "And from that tiшe," eon­ tinues the story, " the smiths have been lucky, taking money every dэ,у, апd never without work, but as for the tiпkers, еУе1·у man's face is against them ! " In the Middlc Ages t,he arts and crafts were generally protected Ьу the forшation of guilds and fraternities. These bodies practically exeгcised the right of patent over their professions, and iпfringements could Ье шо1·е easily dealt with, and frauds шоге easily exposed, Ьу means of concerted effort on the part of the craftsmen. The goldsmiths and silversmiths were thпs protected in Eпglaпd and France, апd in most of the lea_ diпg European агt centres. The test of pure gold was madc

Gold and Silver

3

Ьу "six of the шоrе discreet goldsmiths," who went about and superintendecl the amount of alloy to Ье employed; "gold of the standard of the touch of Paris" was the French terш for metal of the required pшity. Any goldsmith using imitation stoпes or other­ '\\'ise falsifyiпg iп his profession ,vas puпished "Ьу imprisoпшeпt апd Ьу raпsom at tl1e King's pleasure. " There were sоше complaiпts that frauduleпt workers " cover tin with silve1· so sнЬtilely . . . that the same cannot Ье discovercd 01· separated, апd so sell tiп for fiпe silver, to the great damage апd deceipt of us. " Tliis state of thiнgs fiпally Ied to the adoption of the Hall Mark, which is still to Ье sееп on every piece of silver, sigпifyiпg that it has been pronounced pure Ьу the appointed authorities. The goldsшitЬs of France absorbed several other auxiliary arts, and ,vere po,verful and influential. In state processions the goldsmitl1s Ьаd the first place of iшportance, апd bore the I"oyal canopy v.'heв the Kiпg hiшself took part iп tЬе сегешоnу, carrying the shrine of St. Genevieve also, wl1en it was taken forth in great pageants. In the quaint wordiпg of the period, goldsmiths were i f orbldden to gild or silver-plate any articlc шаdе of copper 01· latten, unless tЬеу left some part of the Ш'iginal exposed, "at the foot or some other part, . . . to the inteпt that а mап may see ,vl1ereof thc thiпg is made for to eschew the deceipt at'oгesaid." Tbl.s law was enacted in 1404.

A1·ts and C1·af'ts in tЬе l\Iiddle Ages

4

Many of tl1c g1·eat art schools of the :Мiddle Ages ,vere estaЫished in connection ,vith the nншеrонs monastcries sca.ttcгed through all tl1e European countries and in Englaпd. The Rule of St. Beпedict rings truc coнcerniпg the propcr consecration of an artist: " If thei·e Ье artists iн the moш1ste1·y, let theш exercise their crafts witl1 all hнmility апd reverence, provided the abbot shall liave orde1·ed them. Внt if any of tl1em Ье proнd of the skill he hath in his craft, because l1e thereby seemetl1 to gaiн something for the monastery, let him Ье l'eшoved from it and not exel'cise it again, unless, after hшнЫing llimself, tl1e abbot shall peгmit Ыm." Craft witlюut graft was the keyпote of шediwval art. Кing Alfrcd had а monastic art school at Atl1elney, in which he had collected " monks of all kinds f1·ош every quai·ter." Tllis accoнnts fol' the Greek type of ,vork tшned онt at this time, and very likely for Italian influences in ea1·ly B1·itish art. The king was active in craft work himself, fo1· Asser tells us that he "contiпued, during his frequent wars, to teach his workers in gold and artificers of all kinds." The quaint old encyclop[edia of Bartholomew Anglicus, called, " The Properties of Things," defines gold and silver in an origiпal ,vay, according to the beliefs of this writer's day. Не says of gold, that " in the composition there is more sadness of brimstone than of air and moisture of quicksilver, and tllerefore gold is шоrе sad апd heavy thaп silver." Of silver he remarks,

Gold and Silver

5

" Though silver Ье ,vhite yet it maketh Ыасk lines and strakes in the body that is scored therewitl1." Marco Polo says that in the provincc of Carazan " the rivers yield great qнantities of ,vashcd gold, and also that \Vhich is solid, and 011 the mountains tl1ey find gold iв the vein, and they give one pound of gold f01· six of silver." ,v orkers iп gold or silveг usнally employ onc of t\vo methods - castiпg 01· beating, comЬined \vith delicacy of finish, chasing, and polishing. Thc tcchnical processcs are intercstingly desc1·ibcd Ьу tl1e \vгiters of the old trcatises on diveгs a1·ts. Iп the carlicst of these, Ьу 'tlю monk Theophilus, iп the eleventh ccntшy, we havc most graphic accounts of proccsscs vегу similar to those now in use. The na1vc шonastic iпstгuctor, in his preface, cxhorts his follo,vcrs to lюпcsty and zeal iн thcir good ,vorks. " Skilful iп tl1e a1·ts lct no one glorify himself," say TheophillЩ "as if 1·cceived fтш himsclf, апd not f1·om elsc,vheгc; Ьнt let him Ье thankful lшшЫу iп the I.Jo1·d, froш \Уhош all thiпgs аге гcceivcd." Нс then advises the cгaftsшan carnestly to stнdy tЪе Ьооk whicl1 follo,vs, telling hiш of the ricl1es of instruction therein to Ъе found; " you ,vill there find out whatcvcr . . . Tuscany kпows of пюsаiс work, or in variety of enamels, ,vhatcver АгаЬiа sho,vs forth in ,vork of fusion, dнctility or chasing, wlшtevcr Italy oгnaments ,vitl1 gold . . . ,vhatever France loves in а costly variety of windows; \vhateveг industrioнs Germaпy approves in \vork of gold, silver or copper, and iron, of woods and

6 Arts and Crafts i11 the Middle Ages

of stones." No wonder the autlюrities are lost in con­ jectшe as to the native place of the versatile Theoph­ ilus ! Aftcr promising all thesc delightful things, the good old шонk continues, " Act thcгefore, \Ycll inten­ tioned шаn, ...haste11 to coшplete with all thc study of thy mind, tlюse things \Vhich are still \vanting among the utensils of tЬе House of tЬе Lord," and he enume1·­ a.tes the various pieces of church plate in use in the Middle Ages. Directions are given Ьу Tl1eophilus fог the ,voгk­ room, the benchcs at which tl1e smiths аге to sit, and also the most шiпute technical rccipes fог "instrшnents for sculping," for scraping, filiпg, and so forth, until tl1e "'orkshop should Ье fittcd with all neccssary tools. In those days, ai·tists began at the very beginniпg. There were no tt \Vin�sor and Ne,vtons," no пiсе makers of dividers and T-squares, to v,}юш one could apply; all implemeпts must Ье constrнcted Ьу the шаn ,vho conteшplated нsiнg them. \Ve will see ho,v Theophilus proceeds, after he has his tools in readiness, to construct а chalice. First, he puts the silYer iп а cruciЫe, and when it has become ftuid, he tнrns it into а mould in which there is ,vax (this is evideпtly the "cire perdu " process familiar to casters of every age), апd tl1en he says, " If Ьу some negligence it should happen that the шelted silver Ье not whole, cast it again until it is whole." This process of casting ,vould apply eqнally to all шetals. TЬeophilнs instructs his craftsman how to шаkе the

Gold and Silver

7

handles of the chalice as follows: " Take wax, form handles witl1 it, and grave upon them dragoпs or animals or Ьirds, 01' leaves - in whatever шanner you may wish. But on the top of each handle place а little wax, 1·ound like а slender candle, half а fiпger in length, . . . this wax is called tЬе ft1nncl.... Then take some clay and cover carefully tЬе haпdle, so that tЬе hollows of ' t.he sculptшe may Ье filled нр....After\vards place these moulds near the coals, that when they have become warm you may ронr out the wax. Which being turned out, melt the silver, ... and cast into the same place whence you poured out the \Vax. And when they have becomc cold reшove thc clay." ТЬе solid silver handles аге found inside, onc hardly несd say. In casting in the " cire peгdu " process, Benvenuto Cellini ¼'arns you to beware lest you break your cruciЫe -н just as you've got your silver nicely molten," he says, " and are pouring it into the mould, crack goes your cruciЫe, and all уош \Vork and time and pains are Iost ! " Не advises \Vrapping it in stout cloths. The process of repousse work is also muc]1 the same to-day as it has al\vays been. The metal is mounted on ceшent and the design partly beaten in from tl1e outside; tЬen the cement is melted out, and the tiesign treated in more detail from the inside. Theophilнs tells us ho\v to pI'epare а silver vessel to Ье beaten with а design. After giving а recipe for а sort of pitcЬ, he says, " Melt this coшposition анd fill tl1e vial to the top. And when it has become cold, pOl'tray ...what-

Aгts and Cгafts in the l\Iiddle Ages

8

ever you wish, and taking а slender ductile instrument, and а small hammer, dcsign that which you have por­ trayed around it Ьу striking lightly." Tl1is process is practically, on а larger scale, ,vhat Cellini describes as that of " шinuterie." Cellini praises Caradosso beyond all otl1eгs in this ,vork, saying "it ,vas just in this very gettiпg of the gold so equal all over, that I never knew а man to beat Cara(losso ! " Нс tells ho,v impor­ tant this equality of sшface is, for if, in the ,vorking, tЬе gold became thicker in опс placc than iп anotheг, it was impossiЫe to attaiп а peгfect finish. Cara­ dosso made first а ,vax model of tl1e object whi"h he ,vas to make; this lie cast in сорре1·, апd оп tha ·j l1e laid his thin gold, beating апd modelliпg it to �he forrn, until the small hollow bas-гclief was co:np:ete. The WOI'k was done ,vith \Yooden and steel tools of sшall propoгtions, sometiшes pгessed fгош the back and sometiшes from the fгонt; " сvег so much са�·е is necessaгy," ,vгites Cellini, " ...to prevent tl1e gold from splitting." After tl1e model ,vas bгought to such а point of rclief as "·as sпitaЫe fог the design, great саге liad to Ье exercised in extending t.Ьс gold further, to fit behind l1eads апd arms in spccial гelief. In those days tl1e whole film of gold ,vas then put in the furnace, and fired until tlie gold Ьсgап to liqпefy, at whicl1 exact moment it ,vas necessaгy to remove it. СсШпi himself made а medal f 01' Girolaшo Maгctta, representing Herculcs and the Lion; the figures ,Уегс iп such hi � h relief that they only touched thc g1·ound at а few points.

Gold авd Silver

9

Cellini repoгts \vit.h pride that Michelangelo said to him: " If tliis wOl'k ,vеге шаdе iв great, whetl1eг in mai·Ыe or in broвze, and fashioned ,vith as cxquisite а design as this, it ,vould astonish the ,vorld; and even in its present size it seeшs to ше so beautiful that I do not tl1iнk eYen а goldsmith of the ancient ,,ю1·IJ fashionefl aught to саше up to it!" Cellini says that these ,vo1·ds " stiffened hiш нр, " апd gave him nшch iнcreased aшbition. Не describes also an Atlas which he coпstructed of w1·ought gold, to Ье placed upon а lapis lazuli background: tlis he made in extreme relief, using tiny tools, 11 '\'Orking right into tl1e arшs and legs, and шaking all alike of equal thickпess." А cope-button fог Роре Сlешенt was also quite а tour de force; as he said, " these pieces of work are often Ьarder tl1e smalle1· they are." The design showed tl1e Almighty seate<.1 on а gгeat diamond; around him the1·e ,vere " а nшnber of jolly little aвgels," sоше in complete relief. Не describes l10w he began with а flat shcet of gold, and worked constantly and conscientiously, gradually bossing it up, until, with one tool and theп anotl1er, he finally mastered the material, " till one fine day God the Father stood forth in tl1e round, most сошеlу to bel10ld." So skilful was Cellini in trns агt that hc " bossed up in high relief witl1 his punches some fifteeп little angels, without even liaving to solder the tiniest rent!" The fastening of the clasp was decorated ,vith " little snails and шasks and other pleasing trifles," wl1ich suggest to us that

10 Arts and Crafts in tЬе l\Iiddle Ages

Benvenuto was а true son of the Reпaissance, and that his design did ноt equal his aЬility as а craftsman. Celliпi's metlюd of forшing а silver vase was on this ,vise. The original plate of silvel' had to Ье red ]юt, " not too red, for then it ,vould crack, - but sufficieпt to burn ccrtain littlc grains tЬro\YD on to it." It was tЪen adjнsted to tl1e stake, and stl'uck \VitЬ tЬе hammer, to\"\'ards the centre, until Ьу degгees it began to take convex forш. Then, keeping tЬс central point always in view Ьу means of compasses, from that point Ье strнck " а serics of concentric circles аЬонt lialf а finger арагt froш eacl1 other," and ,vitl1 а hammer, beginпing at the centгe, stгuck so that tl1e "movement of the hammer shall Ье iп the fшm of а spiral, and [ollow the concentric circles." It ,vas important to keep the form vегу even all rouлd. Tl1en the vase Ьаd to Ье hammered from \Yithin, '' till it was equally bellied all round," and after tЬat, the neck was formed Ьу the sаше method. Then, to orвaшent the vase, it \Yas filled with pitcl1, and tl1e design traced on the outside. \Vhen it ,,·as necessary to beat up tЬе ornament fгош ,Yithin, the vase was cleared out, and iвverted upon the point of а long а snarling-iron," fastened iп an anvil stock, and beaten so tliat the point slюuld indent from withiп. The vase woнlcl often Ьаvе to Ье filled ,vith pitcl1 and emptied in this шапnеr seveгal times in tЬе course of its constructioв. Benvenнto Cellini \Yas one of the greatest art per­ eonalities of all time. The quaintness of the resthetic

Gold and Silver

11

temperament is no,vhere found betteг epitomized than in his life and writings. Внt as а producer of artistic things, he is а great disappointmeвt. Тоо versatile to Ье а supreme specialist, he is far more interesting a.s а man and craftsman than as а designer. Technical skill he had in unique abundance. And another faculty, for which he docs not always receive due credit, is his gift for imparting his knowledge. His Treatises, con­ taining valuaЬle information as to methods of ,vork, are lcss familiar to most гeaders than llis fascinating Ьiog1·aphy. Tl1ese Treatises, or directions to craftsmen, are full of the spice and cl1arm 1,,vhicЬ characterize his othcr work. One canrюt proceecl froш а coнsideration of the bolder metal work to а study of the dainty art of the goldsшith witl10ut а glance at Benvenuto Cellini. Thc introduction to the Treatises has а naive opening: (' \Vhat first proшpted me to write ,vas tЬе knowledge of ho,v foпd people are of hearing anything ne1,,v." This, and other reasons, indнced l1im to " write about those loveliest. secrets and wondгoпs шethods of the great art of goldsmithing." Francis I. indeed tlюнght highly of Ccllini. Upon viewiпg one of his works, his l\fajesty гaised Ьis hands, and exclaimed to the Marescl1al de France, '' I comшancl you to give the first good fat аЬЬеу that fa11s vacant to our Benvenuto, for I do not want ту kiпgdoш .to Ьс deprived of his like." Benvenuto describes the process of making filigree work, tl1e principle of whicl1 is, fine ,vire coiled flat so

12 Arts and Crafts in tl1e :М:iddle Ages

as to form designs with an inteгesting and varied sur­ face. Filigree is quite common still, and any one who has walked down the steep street of the Goldsmiths in Genoa is faшiliar with most of its moderв forms. Cellini says: "Though many have practised the art without making drawings first, Ьссанsе thc material in which they worked was so easily haвdled and so pliaЫe, yet those who made their draV\'ings first did the best ,York. Now give ear to the way the агt is pursued." Не then directs that the craftsman shall have ready three sizes of wire, and sоше little gold graвules, ,Yhicl1 аге made Ьу cutting the short lengths of '\\·ire, and tЬев subjccting them to fervent heat нntil they becomc as little round beads. Не then explains ho,Y tl1e artificer must t,Yist and mould the delicate wires, and tastily apply the little granules, so as to make а gгacefнl design, usually of some floriate form. ,vhen the wire flowers авd leaves wcre foгmed satisfactorily, а ,Yash of gum traga­ canth should Ье applied, to hold them in place until tlш fiвal soldering. The soldeг \Yas in powdered form, and it '\\'as to Ье dusted on " just as шuch as шау sпffice, . . . and not more," ... this aшount of soldeг could only Ье determined Ьу the experience of the artist,. Thcn came the firing of the finished ,Уогk in the little fшnace; Benvenuto is here qнite at а loss how to explain himself; "Тоо much heat woпld move the wires you have woven опt of place," he says, " really it is qнite impossiЫe to tel1 it properly in wгiting; I coнld explain it all right Ьу ,vord of mouth, or better still, show you how it is

Gold and Silver

13

done, - still, соте along, - we'll try to go on as we started! '' Soшetiшes embossing was done Ьу thin sheets of metal being pressed on to а wooden carving prepared for the purpose, so tl1at the result would Ье а raised silver patteгn 1 which, when filled нр with pitch or lead, would pass for а saшple of repousse ,vork. I пееd hardly say that а still simpler mechanical forш of pressing obtains on cheap silve1· to-day. So much for the mechanical processes of treating these metals. " т е ,vill now ехашiпе some of the great historic examples, and glance at the lives of promineвt workers in gold and silve1· in the past. One of the most bl'illiaнt times fог the production of works of art in gold and silver, was ,vheн Constaпtine, uроп becomiпg Chгistiaп, moved tl1e seat of goverп­ meпt to Byzaпtium. Byzantine ornament lends itself especially to sucl1 ,vOl'k. Tl1e l1istinguisl1iнg шark Ьеt\\·еен tl1e eai·lier G1·eek je,vellers апd the Byzantiпe was: that the fОl'шег considel'ed chicfly line, forш, and delicacy of ,vorkmanship, while the latte1· were led to expгessioв througl1 colour анd textшe, авd not fineнess of finish. Tl1e Byzantine eшperors loved gold in а lavisl1 way and on а superb scale. Tl1ey \Уеге not content ,vitl1 cl1aste 1·ings and necklets, or even with golden cro,vns. Tl1e royal thrones were of gold; their ю·шош ,vas deco­ rated with the p1·ecious metal, and their chariots enriched in the same ,vay. Even the houses of the 1·ich people

14 Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages

were more endo,ved ,vith p1·ecious fшпishings than most of the chшches of other nations, and еvегу faшily possessed а massivc silver tаЫе, and solid vases and plate. The Empcror Theop}lilus, ,vho lived in the ninth century, was а great lover of tЬе arts. His palace was built after the Arablan style, and he had skilful mechan­ ical experts to constrнct а golden tree over his throne, on the branches of ,v}1ich were nuшerous Ьirds, and two golden lions at the foot. These Ьirds were so arranged Ьу clockwork, that they could Ье шаdе to sing, and the lions also joined а roar to the chorus ! А great designeг of the Middle Ages was Alcuin, tl1e teacher of Clшrlemagne, who lived from 735 to 804; he superinteпdcd the building of many fine speciшcn:s of church plate. TJ1e school of Alcuin, however, was more famous for illшnination, and ,ve shall speak of Ыs work at more length wl1en " r e соше to deal witl1 that subject. Another distingнis}1cd patron of a1·t was the Abbot Odo of Clнny, who lшd originally bcen destiпed for а soldier; Ънt he was visited with ,vhat Maitland describes as "an inveterate Ьeadache, ,vhich, from his seventcenth to his nineteenth year, defied all medical skill," so he and his parents, convinccd that this was а manifcstation of the disappro\·al of Heaven, decided to devote his life to religious pursнits. Не bccame Abbot of Cluny in the year 927. Examples of ninth centшy goldsшithing are гаге.

16 Arts and Crafts in the �Iiddle Ages

many of the valuaЫe things ,vith ,vhich he was sur­ rounded ,vere taken a,vay. The throne was deпuded of its gold, and шау Ье seen to-day in the Cathedral at Aachcn, а simple marЫe chair plain and dignified, with the copper joints showing its construction. М:аnу of the relics of CЬarlemagne are in the treasury at Aachen, among other interesting iteшs, the boncs of the right arm of the Emperor in а goldeп shrine in the form of а hand and arm. The1·e is а thrill in contemplating the remains of the right arm of Charlemagne after all the centuries, ,vhen one 1·emembers the swords and sceptres which have been ,vielded Ьу that mighty member. The reliquary containing the right а�·ш of Charlemagne is German work (of course later than the opening of the tomb), рrоЬаЫу bet,veen 115.5 and 1190. Frederic Barbarossa and his ancestors are represented on its ornamentation. Thcre is little golclsmith's work of the Norman period in Great Britain, for that was а time of the bнildiпg of large structures, and рrоЬаЫу minor arts and peгsonal adornment took а secondaгy place. Perhaps thc most satisfacto1·y display of medireval ai·ts and crafts which may Ье seen in опе city is at Нildesheim: the special richness of remains of the tenth century is owing to the life and example of an early Ьishop-Bernward- who rпled the See from 993 to 1022. Before he ,yas шаdс Ьishop, BerшYard ,vas tнtШ' to the young EmperШ' Otto III. Нс ,vas а stu�ent of art all his life, and а pгactical craftsшaв, ,voгking

Gold and Silver

17

largely in metals, and training up а Guild of followers in the Catl1edral School. Не was extгemely versatile: one of the gгeat geniuses of history. In times of war hc was Coшmander in Chief of Hildesheim; he was а traveller, having made pilgrimages to Rome and Paris, and the grave of St. Martin at Tours. This wide culture was unusual in those days; it is quite evident from his active life of accoшplishшeвt in creative art, tliat good Bishop Beгnwaгd was not to Ье numbered amoпg those who expected the end of the world to occur in the year 1000 А. D. Of his ,voгks to Ье seen in Hildesheim, theгe are splendid examples. The Goldsmith's School нnder his direction was famous. Не was created Ьishop in 992; Taugma1· pays him а tribute, saying: "Не was an excellent penman, а good painter, and as а lюusehold manager ,vas unequalled." Moreoveг, he " excelled in the шechanical no less than in thc liberal arts." In fact, а visit to Hildesheim to-day pгoves tl1at to tl1is шаn ,vho lived ten centuries ago is due the fact that Hildesl1eim is tl1e most artistic city iп Germany from the antiqнarian's point of vie,v. This Ьishop influcnced еvегу branch of art, and with so vital an iпfluence, that his See city is still full of his ,voгks and personality. Не was not only а pгactical ,vorker in the arts апd cгafts, but he was also а collcctor, fOl'Шing quite а museuш f 01' the further instruction of the students ,vho саше in touch with l1im. Не decorated the walls of Ыs catl1edral; the great candelabгum, or corona, which circles above the central aisle of the

18 Arts and Cгafts iп the l\Iiddle Ages

cathedral, ,vas his оwв design, and the ,york of his follo,yeгs; and the paschal colшnn in the cathedral was from l1is ,vorkshop, \VГought as delightfully as would Ье possiЫe in any age, and yet executed пearly а thou­ sand уеагs ago. Nо Ьishop evcr deserved saiвthood more, or made а mше pгactical contributioв to the Chнrch. Роре Celcstine III. canonized him in 1194. Beгnwaгd camc of а nоЫс family. His figure шау Ье seen - as near an approach to а portrait of this great \Yoгker as \Уе liave - among the bas-reliefs on the beautiful choir-scгecn in St. Micl1ael's Chшch in Hildes­ heim. The cross executcd Ьу Bermvard's own hands in 994 is а superb ,voгk, ,vith filigгee covering the whole, апd set with geшs еп cabochon, with pearls, and antique pгecious stones, caгved ,vith Greek divinities in intaglio. The candlesticks of St. BerIНvard, too, are most interest­ ing. They are шаdе of а metal coшposed of gold., silver, and iron, and are ,vгought magnificently, into а mass of aniшal and floriate forms, their outline being well retained, and the gгасе of the shaft and proportions being striking. They are partly the work of the mallet and partly of the chisel. They had been buried with Bernward, and were found in his sarcophagus in 1194. Didron has likened them, in their use of animal form, to the art of the Mexicans; but to ше they seem more like delightful Germaн Romanesque workmanship, leaning more towaгds that of certain spirited Lombэ.rd grotesques, or even that of Arles and certain parts of

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F1·ance, thaн to tlie Aztec to whicЬ Didron has refer­ ence. The little cliшЬing figшes, while they certainly have very large hands and feet, yet are endowed with а certain sprightly action; they all give th9 impression of rcally makiнg an effort, - they are trying to cliшb, instead of siшply occupying places in the foliage. Tl1ere is а good deal of strengtl1 аш.l energy displaye(l in all of theш, and, ,vhile tl1e work is rude and rough, it iв virile. It is not unlike the ,vorkmanship on the Gloucester candlestick iп the Soutl1 Kensington l\Iu­ seum, which was made in the twelftl1 ccntury. Bernwai·d's chalice is set with antique stones, some of theш carved. On the foot шау Ье seen опе represent­ ing the three Graces, in their cнstomary state of nudity "without malice." Bernward \vas also an arcbltect. Не bнilt the delight­ fнl church of St. Michael, and its cloister. Не also sнperintended the building of an importaнt ,vall Ьу the river bank in the lower town. ,vhen there was an uneasy time of controversy at Gandesheim, Bernward hasteвed to headquarte1·s in Rome, to arrange to bring about better feeling. In 1001 he arrived, early in January, and the Роре went out to шееt him, kissed him, and invited him to stay as а guest at his palacc. After accomplishing l1is diplo­ matic mission, and ladcn ,vith all sorts of sacred гelics, Bernward returned home, not too directly to prevent his seeing something of the intervening coнntry. А book which Bishop Beгnward had made and

20 Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages

illuminated in 1011 has the inscription: "I, Bernward, had this codex written out, at my own cost, and gave it to the beloved Saint of God, Michael. Anathema to him who alienates it." This inscription has the mo1·e interest for being the actual autograph of Bernward. Не was succeeded Ьу Hezilo, and many other pнpils. · These men made the beautiful corona of the cathed1·al, of which I give an illнstration in detail. Great coronas or circular chandeliers lшng in the naves of many cathedrals in the Middle Ages. The finest specimen is this at Hildesheim, the magnificent ring of which is twenty feet across, as it hangs sнspended Ьу а systeш of rods and balls in the form of chains. It has twelve large towers and twelve sшall ones set агонnd it, sнp­ posed to sнggest the Heavenly Jerнsaleш with its many mansions. There are sockets for seventy-t,vo candles. The detail of its adornment is very splendid, анd repays close stнdy. Every little tнr1·et is different in architectonic form, and statues of saints are to Ье seen standing within these. The pierced silve1· ,York on this chandelier is as beaнtifнl as any шedireval ехашрlе in existence. The great leader of шedireval aгts in Fгance '11�as tl1e Abbot Sнger of St. Denis. Sнger was born iн 1081, he and his brotl1eг, Alvise, who was Bishop of Arras, both being destined for tl1e Episcopate. As а yoнth he passcd ten years at St. Denis as а scholar. Неге 11е became intimate with Prince Loнis, and this friendship developed in afteг lif e. On retшning froш а voyage to

Gold апd Silver

21

Italy, in 1122, he learned at the same time of the death of his spiritual father, Abbot Adam, апd of his own election to Ье his successor. Не thus stood at the head of the convent of St. Denis i11 1123. This was due to his nоЫе character, his genius for diplornacy and his artistic talent. Не was minister to Louis VI., and aftervvards to Louis VII., and during the second Crusade, he was made Regent for the kingdom. Suger was known, after this, as the Father of his Country, for he was а courageous counsellor, firm and convincing in argument, so that the king had really been guided Ьу his advice. \Vhile he was making laws and instigating crusades, he was also directiпg craft shops and propagating the arts in connection with the life of the Clшrch. St. Bernar(l denounced him, as encouraging too luxurious а ritual; Suger made а characteгistic reply: " If the ancient law ... ordained tliat vessels and cups of gold slюuld Ье used for libations, and to receive the Ыооd of rams, ... how much rather should we devote gold, precious вtones, and the гarest of mate1·ials, to those vessels which are destined to contain the Ыооd of Our Lord." Suger ordered and himself made most beautiful appointшents for the sanctuary, and ,vheн any vessel al1·eady owned Ьу the АЬЬеу was of costly шaterial, and yet unsuitaЫe in style, he had it remodelled. An interesting instance of tl1is is а certain antiqнe vase of red porphyry. Tl1ere vvas пothing ccclesiastical аЬонt this vase; it was а plain straight Greek jar, witl1 two handles at the sides. Sugcr treated it as the body of

22 A1·ts and Craf ts in the l\1iddle Ages

an eagle, making the head and neck to surmount it, and tl1e claw feet for it to stand on, together with its soaring wings, of solid gold, and it thus became trans­ formed into а magnificent reliquary in the form of the king of Ьirds. Thc inscription on this Ampula of Suger is: "As it is our dнty to preseпt unto God oЫatioпs of gems and gold, I, Suger, offer this vase unto the Lord." Suger stood always for the i(leal in art anu character. Не liad the courage of his couvictions in spite of the fulшinations of St. Berпard. Instead of using the enormous sums of money at his disposal for importing Byzantine ,vorkmen, he p1·efer1·ed to use his funds and his own influence in developing а native French school of artificers. It is interesting to discover that Suger, among his many aclaptations and restoгations at St. Denis, incor­ porated some of the works of St. Eloi into his own coш­ positions. For instance, l1e took an ivory pulpit, and remodelled it with the addition of copper animals. Abbots of St. Denis made beautiful offerings to the church. One of theш, Abbot Matthiew de Vendome, presented а woпdcrfнl гeliquary, consisting of а golden head and bust, \vhile another gave а reliquar. y to contaiп the jaw of St. Louis. Suger presented many fine products of his own art and that of his pupils, among others а great cгoss six f eet iп l1eigl1t. А story is told of him, that, while engaged in making а particularly splendid crucifix for St. Denis, he ran short of precious